Abstract
Monitoring stress is relevant in many areas, including sports science. In that scope, various studies showed the feasibility of stress classification using eye tracking data. In most cases, the screen-based experimental design restricted the motion of participants. Consequently, the transferability of results to dynamic sports applications remains unclear. To address this research gap, we conducted a virtual reality-based stress test consisting of a football goalkeeping scenario. We contribute by proposing a stress classification pipeline solely relying on gaze behaviour and pupil diameter metrics extracted from the recorded data. To optimize the analysis pipeline, we applied feature selection and compared the performance of different classification methods. Results show that the Random Forest classifier achieves the best performance with 87.3% accuracy, comparable to state-of-the-art approaches fusing eye tracking data and additional biosignals. Moreover, our approach outperforms existing methods exclusively relying on eye measures.
Topics

No keywords indexed for this article. Browse by subject →

References
57
[5]
Jos A. Bosch , Eco J. C. de Geus , Enno C. I. Veerman , Johan Hoogstraten , and Arie V . Nieuw Amerongen . 2003 . Innate Secretory Immunity in Response to Laboratory Stressors That Evoke Distinct Patterns of Cardiac Autonomic Activity. Psychosomatic Medicine 65, 2 (2003). Jos A. Bosch, Eco J. C. de Geus, Enno C. I. Veerman, Johan Hoogstraten, and Arie V. Nieuw Amerongen. 2003. Innate Secretory Immunity in Response to Laboratory Stressors That Evoke Distinct Patterns of Cardiac Autonomic Activity. Psychosomatic Medicine 65, 2 (2003).
[7]
Random Forests

Leo Breiman

Machine Learning 10.1023/a:1010933404324
[9]
Michel S. Brink , Chris Visscher , Suzanne Arends , Johannes Zwerver , Wendy J. Post , and Koen A.P.M . Lemmink . 2010 . Monitoring stress and recovery: new insights for the prevention of injuries and illnesses in elite youth soccer players. British journal of sports medicine 44, 11 (sep 2010), 809--815. https://doi.org/10.1136/BJSM.2009.069476 Michel S. Brink, Chris Visscher, Suzanne Arends, Johannes Zwerver, Wendy J. Post, and Koen A.P.M. Lemmink. 2010. Monitoring stress and recovery: new insights for the prevention of injuries and illnesses in elite youth soccer players. British journal of sports medicine 44, 11 (sep 2010), 809--815. https://doi.org/10.1136/BJSM.2009.069476
[11]
Emanuela L. Dan , Mihaela Dînşoreanu , and Raul C. Mureşan . 2020 . Accuracy of Six Interpolation Methods Applied on Pupil Diameter Data. In 2020 IEEE International Conference on Automation, Quality and Testing, Robotics (AQTR) ( Washington, DC, USA). IEEE, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, 1--5. https://doi.org/10.1109/AQTR49680. 2020 .9129915 Emanuela L. Dan, Mihaela Dînşoreanu, and Raul C. Mureşan. 2020. Accuracy of Six Interpolation Methods Applied on Pupil Diameter Data. In 2020 IEEE International Conference on Automation, Quality and Testing, Robotics (AQTR) (Washington, DC, USA). IEEE, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, 1--5. https://doi.org/10.1109/AQTR49680.2020.9129915
[12]
Belur V. Dasarathy . 1991. Nearest Neighbor (NN) Norms: Nn Pattern Classification Techniques . IEEE Computer Society Press , Los Alamitos, CA, USA . https://books.google.de/books?id=k2dQAAAAMAAJ Belur V. Dasarathy. 1991. Nearest Neighbor (NN) Norms: Nn Pattern Classification Techniques. IEEE Computer Society Press, Los Alamitos, CA, USA. https://books.google.de/books?id=k2dQAAAAMAAJ
[13]
Peter Drotár , Juraj Gazda , and Zdenek Smékal . 2015. An Experimental Comparison of Feature Selection Methods on Two-Class Biomedical Datasets. Comput. Biol. Med. 66 , C (nov 2015 ), 1--10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compbiomed.2015.08.010 Peter Drotár, Juraj Gazda, and Zdenek Smékal. 2015. An Experimental Comparison of Feature Selection Methods on Two-Class Biomedical Datasets. Comput. Biol. Med. 66, C (nov 2015), 1--10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compbiomed.2015.08.010
[15]
Andrew T. Duchowski , Krzysztof Krejtz , Izabela Krejtz , Cezary Biele , Anna Niedzielska , Peter Kiefer , Martin Raubal , and Ioannis Giannopoulos . 2018. The Index of Pupillary Activity: Measuring Cognitive Load Vis-à-Vis Task Difficulty with Pupil Oscillation . Association for Computing Machinery , New York, NY, USA , 1--13. https://doi.org/10.1145/3173574.3173856 Andrew T. Duchowski, Krzysztof Krejtz, Izabela Krejtz, Cezary Biele, Anna Niedzielska, Peter Kiefer, Martin Raubal, and Ioannis Giannopoulos. 2018. The Index of Pupillary Activity: Measuring Cognitive Load Vis-à-Vis Task Difficulty with Pupil Oscillation. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1--13. https://doi.org/10.1145/3173574.3173856
[20]
Sara Gilman R. Thornton D. Miller and R. Biersner. 1979. Effects of exercise stress on parotid gland secretion. Hormone and metabolic research = Hormon- und Stoffwechselforschung = Hormones et metabolisme 11 7 (1979) 454. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0028-1095789 Sara Gilman R. Thornton D. Miller and R. Biersner. 1979. Effects of exercise stress on parotid gland secretion. Hormone and metabolic research = Hormon- und Stoffwechselforschung = Hormones et metabolisme 11 7 (1979) 454. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0028-1095789 10.1055/s-0028-1095789
[21]
Martijn Haak , Steven Bos , Sacha Panic , and Léon JM Rothkrantz . 2009. Detecting stress using eye blinks and brain activity from EEG signals . In Proceeding of the 1st driver car interaction and interface (DCII 2008) (Essen, Germany) . Association for Computing Machinery , New York, NY, USA , 35--60. Martijn Haak, Steven Bos, Sacha Panic, and Léon JM Rothkrantz. 2009. Detecting stress using eye blinks and brain activity from EEG signals. In Proceeding of the 1st driver car interaction and interface (DCII 2008) (Essen, Germany). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 35--60.
[22]
Timothy C. Hain . 1999. Saccade tests. Available online: https://dizziness-and-balance.com/practice/saccades/saccade.htm (accessed on 01 December 2021 ). Timothy C. Hain. 1999. Saccade tests. Available online: https://dizziness-and-balance.com/practice/saccades/saccade.htm (accessed on 01 December 2021).
[24]
Iain Jackson and Sylvain Sirois . 2009. Infant cognition: going full factorial with pupil dilation. Developmental science 12, 4 ( 2009 ), 670--9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00805.x. Iain Jackson and Sylvain Sirois. 2009. Infant cognition: going full factorial with pupil dilation. Developmental science 12, 4 (2009), 670--9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00805.x.
[31]
Wenhui Liao , Weihong Zhang , Zhiwei Zhu , and Qiang Ji . 2005 . A Real-Time Human Stress Monitoring System Using Dynamic Bayesian Network . 2005 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR'05) - Workshops (2005 ), 70--70. https://doi.org/10.1109/cvpr.2005.394 Wenhui Liao, Weihong Zhang, Zhiwei Zhu, and Qiang Ji. 2005. A Real-Time Human Stress Monitoring System Using Dynamic Bayesian Network. 2005 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR'05) - Workshops (2005), 70--70. https://doi.org/10.1109/cvpr.2005.394
[33]
Faniya Mokhayeri and Mohammad- R. Akbarzadeh-T. 2011 . Mental Stress Detection Based on Soft Computing Techniques. In 2011 IEEE International Conference on Bioinformatics and Biomedicine , Vol. 1 . IEEE Computer Society, Los Alamitos, CA, USA, 430--433. https://doi.org/10.1109/BIBM. 2011.80 Faniya Mokhayeri and Mohammad-R. Akbarzadeh-T. 2011. Mental Stress Detection Based on Soft Computing Techniques. In 2011 IEEE International Conference on Bioinformatics and Biomedicine, Vol. 1. IEEE Computer Society, Los Alamitos, CA, USA, 430--433. https://doi.org/10.1109/BIBM.2011.80
[36]
Raphael Nixdorf Insa Nixdorf and Jürgen Beckmann. 2018. Stress Underrecovery and Health Problems in Athletes. 119--131. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315268149-9 Raphael Nixdorf Insa Nixdorf and Jürgen Beckmann. 2018. Stress Underrecovery and Health Problems in Athletes. 119--131. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315268149-9 10.4324/9781315268149-9
[43]
Nicolas Rohleder . 2005. Psychosocial stress-induced activation of salivary alpha-amylase: an indicator of sympathetic activity? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1032 , Biobehavioral Stress Response: Protective and Damaging Effects ( 2005 ). Nicolas Rohleder. 2005. Psychosocial stress-induced activation of salivary alpha-amylase: an indicator of sympathetic activity? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1032, Biobehavioral Stress Response: Protective and Damaging Effects (2005).
[49]
Vasileios Skaramagkas , Giorgos Giannakakis , Emmanouil Ktistakis , Dimitris Manousos , Ioannis Karatzanis , Nikolaos Tachos , Evanthia Eleftherios Tripoliti , Kostas Marias, Dimitrios I. Fotiadis, and Manolis Tsiknakis. 2021 . Review of eye tracking metrics involved in emotional and cognitive processes. IEEE Reviews in Biomedical Engineering ( 2021), 1--1. https://doi.org/10.1109/RBME.2021.3066072 Vasileios Skaramagkas, Giorgos Giannakakis, Emmanouil Ktistakis, Dimitris Manousos, Ioannis Karatzanis, Nikolaos Tachos, Evanthia Eleftherios Tripoliti, Kostas Marias, Dimitrios I. Fotiadis, and Manolis Tsiknakis. 2021. Review of eye tracking metrics involved in emotional and cognitive processes. IEEE Reviews in Biomedical Engineering (2021), 1--1. https://doi.org/10.1109/RBME.2021.3066072
[50]
Robert H. Spector . 1990 . The Pupils. In Clinical Methods: The History, Physical, and Laboratory Examinations (3 ed.), Kenneth H Walker, Dallas W Hall, and Willis J Hurst (Eds.). Butterworths, Boston , Chapter 58 , 300 -- 304 . https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-7506-7586-4.50015-5 Robert H. Spector. 1990. The Pupils. In Clinical Methods: The History, Physical, and Laboratory Examinations (3 ed.), Kenneth H Walker, Dallas W Hall, and Willis J Hurst (Eds.). Butterworths, Boston, Chapter 58, 300--304. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-7506-7586-4.50015-5

Showing 50 of 57 references

Related

You May Also Like

Reducing the Memory Footprint of 3D Gaussian Splatting

Panagiotis Papantonakis, Georgios Kopanas · 2024

84 citations

Interaction Based Redirected Walking

Thereza Schmelter, Levente Hernadi · 2021

21 citations