High organofluorine concentrations in municipal wastewater affect downstream drinking water supplies for millions of Americans

Wastewater receives per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from diverse consumer and industrial sources, and discharges are known to be a concern for drinking water quality. The PFAS family includes thousands of potential chemical structures containing organofluorine moieties. Exposures to a few well-studied PFAS, mainly perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAA), have been associated with increased risk of many adverse health outcomes, prompting federal drinking water regulations for six compounds in 2024. Here, we find that the six regulated PFAS (mean = 7 to 8%) and 18 measured PFAA (mean = 11 to 21%) make up only a small fraction of the extractable organofluorine (EOF) in influent and effluent from eight large municipal wastewater treatment facilities. Most of the EOF in influent (75%) and effluent (62%) consists of mono- and polyfluorinated pharmaceuticals. The treatment technology and sizes of the treatment facilities in this study are similar to those serving 70% of the US population. Despite advanced treatment technologies, the maximum EOF removal efficiency among facilities in this work was <25%. Extrapolating our measurements to other large facilities across the United States results in a nationwide EOF discharge estimate of 1.0 to 2.8 million moles F y
−1
. Using a national model that simulates connections between wastewater discharges and downstream drinking water intakes, we estimate that the sources of drinking water for up to 23 million Americans could be contaminated above regulatory thresholds by wastewater-derived PFAS alone. These results emphasize the importance of further curbing ongoing PFAS sources and additional evaluations of the fate and toxicity of fluorinated pharmaceuticals.

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Details

Published: Jan 06, 2025
Vol/Issue: 122(3)
License: View

Authors

B

Bridger J. Ruyle

Environmental Science & Engineering, Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences; Harvard University; Department of Global Ecology, Carnegie Institution for Science; Department of Civil and Urban Engineering, Tandon School of Engineering, New York University

E

Emily H. Pennoyer

Department of Environmental Health, Boston University School of Public Health

S

Simon Vojta

Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island

J

Jitka Becanova

Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island

M

Minhazul Islam

School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University

T

Thomas F. Webster

Department of Environmental Health, Boston University School of Public Health

W

Wendy Heiger-Bernays

Department of Environmental Health, Boston University School of Public Health

R

Rainer Lohmann

Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island

P

Paul Westerhoff

School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University

CDM Smith

Environmental Science & Engineering, Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences; Harvard University; Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Harvard University; Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health

Funding

Water Research Foundation Award: Project 5031

Cite This Article

Bridger J. Ruyle, Emily H. Pennoyer, Simon Vojta, et al. (2025). High organofluorine concentrations in municipal wastewater affect downstream drinking water supplies for millions of Americans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 122(3). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2417156122

High organofluorine concentrations in municipal wastewater affect downstream drinking water supplies for millions of Americans

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